ASIA

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Saudi Arabia

 Standard Arabic 206,000,000 first-language speakers of all Arabic varieties Modern Standard Arabic is a modernized variety of Classical Arabic. In most Arab countries only the well educated have adequate proficiency in Standard Arabic, while over 100,500,000 do not. Arabic script in Algeria. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Bible: 1984–1991. VSO.
  Syria Syriac 30,000 in Iraq, Population total all countries: 210,231. Ethnic population: 4,250,000 In some countries, young people speak the language of that country, not Assyrian Neo-Aramaic. Syriac script. Radio programs. Bible: 1852–1919. The Assyrian and Chaldean separated denominationally in the 16th century. Christian (Nestorian and other).
         
  Iran Farsi 22,000,000 in Iran (1997). Population includes 800,000 Eastern Farsi in Khorasan, Gilan, Tat, Bakhtiari, Lur. Population total all countries: 24,316,121. National language. Vigorous. All domains. All ages. Many study English, but proficiency is low. Taught in primary and secondary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1838–1995. SOV. Muslim (Shi'a), Baha'i, Christian.
         
  Armenia Armenian: Modern, Eastern 3,399,903 in Armenia, throughout the country National language. 91% of the ethnic group in the former USSR spoke it as first language (1979 census). All ages. About 30% of speakers also use Russian. Unique script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1883–1994. Speakers refer to this language as Haieren. SVO. National Armenian Christian Church.
    Armenian: Modern, Western 879,612 speakers in Armenia National language. 91% of the ethnic group in the former USSR spoke it as first language (1979 census). All ages. About 30% of speakers also use Russian. Unique script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1883–1994. Speakers refer to this language as Haieren. SVO. National Armenian Christian Church.
         
  Azerbadjan Azeri 6,069,453 in Azerbaijan (1989 census). 4,000,000 monolinguals. Population total all countries: 7,059,529. National language. In the republics of the former USSR, 98% of the ethnic group speak Azerbaijani as first language. 8,000,000 second-language speakers. Used in publications. Everyone is familiar with the standardized written and spoken forms. Taught as a second language in Russian language schools. Literacy rate in second language: High. Roman script official, but Cyrillic script widely used; Cyrillic script in Armenia. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1891. North and South Azerbaijani are spoken by one ethnic group. Each language group is reluctant to accept the written form of the other. Muslim (Shi'a and Sunni).
         
  Turkmenistan Turkmen 3,430,000 in Turkmenistan (1995). Population total all countries: 6,403,533. Ethnic population: 3,465,000 (1995). National language. 50% claim a good knowledge of Russian. Roman script; Arabic and Cyrillic scripts in Afghanistan; Arabic script in Iran. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1880–1982. The so-called 'Turkmen' in Syria, and possibly Iraq and Jordan, actually speak an ancient form of Turkmen; so-called 'Turkmen' in Tibet may speak a different Turkic language. Desert. Agriculturalists: cotton; animal husbandry: sheep; carpet weavers; gas, oil workers. Muslim (Sunni).
         
  Tajikistan Tajik 3,344,720 in Tajikistan (1991). Population total all countries: 4,380,212. Official language. Most Tajiki are trilingual in Northern Uzbek, Russian, and Tajiki. Cyrillic script. Bible: 1992. Russian sources refer to all Persian dialects in Afghanistan as 'Tajiki'. So-called 'Tajiki' in China is actually Shugni or Wakhi. There are Tajiki-speaking Gypsy communities in Russian central Asia. There is some literature. Agriculturalists. Muslim (Sunni).
         
  Uzbekistan Karakalpak 407,000 in Uzbekistan (1993 UBS). Population total all countries: 411,542. Ethnic population: 424,000 in the former USSR. Along the lower Amu Darya and around the southern part of the Aral Sea. Also spoken in Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan. Speakers also use Uzbek or Russian. Cyrillic script. Bible portions: 1996. Some literature. Fishermen in Aral Sea, agriculturalists; craftsmen. Muslim (Sunni).
    Uzbek 16,539,000 in Uzbekistan (1995 UN). Population total all countries: 18,795,591. Uzbekistan and throughout Asian republics of the former USSR. East of the Amu Darya and around the southern Aral Sea. Official language. Vigorous. Turks of Fergana and Samarkand speak Uzbek. There are Uzbek-speaking Gypsy communities in Russian central Asia. All ages. Children speak Uzbek at home. Positive language attitude. 49% of speakers also use Russian, but rural people have low proficiency. Literacy rate in second language: High. Taught in primary and secondary schools. Cyrillic script; Arabic, Sogdian, Roman, and Cyrillic scripts in China. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1992–1995. People are about one-third urbanized. Much Persian influence in language and culture. Patrilineal. 'Sart' is an obsolete name for sedentary Uzbek, possibly those who are ethnically Tajik. SOV; has lost its historical vowel harmony and its vowel system now resembles that of Tajiki. Valleys. Desert, semiarid. Agriculturalists: cotton, fruit, vegetables, grain; pastoralists: sheep; silk production; technicians, professionals, industrial workers, communications, medicine, educators, administrators. Muslim (Hanafi Sunni).
         
  Kyrgiztan Kyrgyz 2,448,220 in the former USSR (1993 UBS). Population total all countries: 3,136,733. Official language. 98% of the 2,539,000 Kirghiz speak it as first language. The Ichkilik are a Kirghiz-speaking people of non-Kirghiz origin. 29% also speak Russian. Schools in Kirghiz. Cyrillic script; Arabic script in China and Roman script in Turkey. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. TV. NT: 1991. The names 'Eastern Kirghiz' and 'Western Kirghiz' have been erroneously applied to Kazakh. Increasing education. Increasing feelings of Islamic brotherhood. SOV. Mountain slope. Muslim (Sunni), Buddhist (Lamaist).
         
  Iraq Kurdish: Sorani 2,785,500 in Iraq, 18% of population including all Kurdish in Iraq, most of whom speak Kurdi (1986). Population total all countries 6,036,000. All Kurd speakers in all countries: 11,000,000 (1999 WA). In and around Sulamanya. Sorani is mainly in Iraq. Official language. Literacy rate in second language: 27%. Other reports are that many are well educated. Sunni and Shi'a Muslim; Ahl-e-haqq groups in 3 districts in south and southeast Kurdistan, mainly around Kermanshah and Kerkuk; 50,000 Yezidis in northern Iraq near Mosul and in the Sinjar Hills. NT 1994.
         
  Afghanistan Pashto 8,000,000 all Pashto in Afghanistan (1989), 35% to 50% of the population. Population total all countries 9,204,000 or more. All Pashto in all countries: 19,000,000. There is generally an 80% lexical similarity between the northern and southern varieties of Pashto. Grammar. Perso-Arabic script used. Muslim.
    Dari 5,600,000 in Afghanistan (1996). Population total all countries: 7,600,000. National language. Taught in schools. Arabic script. Radio programs. NT: 1982–1985.
         
  Russia Tuvin 180,000 in Russia (2001). Population total all countries: 209,400. Tuvin Ao. Capital is Kyzl. Also spoken in China, Mongolia. Speakers use Russian as second language, and Mongolian near the border. Cyrillic script. NT: 2002. Until 1944 Tuva was a formally independent state. Hunters; animal husbandry: cattle, horses, sheep, goats, camels, reindeer. Buddhist (Lamaist).
    Tatar 464,669 in Russia (2000). Population total all countries: 1,610,032. Ethnic population: 6,645,588 in the former USSR (1989 census). Tatarstan, from Moscow to eastern Siberia. Capital is Kazan (Kasan), on the Volga River. The Karatai are ethnically Erzya, who speak Tatar. Literacy rate in second language: High. Roman script. Grammar. Bible portions: 1864–2000.Different from Crimean Tatar (Crimean Turkish). SOV. Agriculturalists; oil workers; coal miners. Muslim (Sunni), Christian.
    Tabassaran 95,000 in Russia, Southern Dagestan ASSR. Also spoken in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. Cyrillic script. Bible portions: 1996. Muslim (Sunni).
    Nogai 67,500 mother tongue speakers (90%) out of an ethnic population of 75,000 in Northern Caucasus, Cherkes AO. Also spoken in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan. Dialect differences are slight. Bilingualism in Russian. Cyrillic script. Sunni Muslim. Bible portions 1996.
    Mari-High 66,000 in Mari ASSR, Gorno-Mariy, and some in Bashkortostan. Capital is Joschkar-Ola. Speakers have difficulty reading Low Mari because of lexical differences. There are also phonological and morphological differences. Bilingualism in Russian, Low Mari. Agriculturalists, lumbermen. Christian, traditional religion. NT 1824.
    Mari-Meadow
    Lak 112,100 speakers in Russia, in Southern Dagestan ASSR. Also spoken in Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey (Asia), Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. Cyrillic script. Bible portions: 1996. Muslim (Sunni).
    Komi-Zyrian
    Karelian - North 118,000 speakers in Russia, in the Karelia, Tver (Kalinin), St. Petersburg, and Murmansk oblasts.10,000 in Finland in two villages in Oulu Province, close to the Russian border (Northern Karelian), and others scattered around Finland (Southern Karelian). Many also use Russian, but those over 50 have difficulty understanding Russian. Some use Finnish as second language.Dictionary. Bible portions: 1820–1999.A primer was recently produced in Tver Karelian. Agriculturalists; animal husbandry; wood industry.
    Livvi - Olonets 14,142 speakers in Russia, Karelian Republic. 'Olonets' is the Russian name of their capital, which they call 'Anus', or 'Aunus' in Finnish. 5,172 speakers in Finland Taught in some primary schools but not as a compulsory subject. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. NT: 2003.Taught in some primary schools but not as a compulsory subject. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. NT: 2003.Taught in some primary schools but not as a compulsory subject. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. NT: 2003.Ludic is transitional between Livvi and Veps. A distinct language from Karelian Proper and Ludic. Primers, textbooks, poetry.Since 1990 there has been a conscious attempt to revive use of the language. Spoken mostly by older adults. Proficiency among children is very low. All speakers also use Russian.
    Khakas 64,800 mother tongue speakers (81%) out of an ethnic population of 80,000 in Russia, Khakassia, north of the Altai Mts., and a few north of the Oblast. Ababan is the capital. Also spoken in China. Bilingualism in Russian. Cyrillic script. Animal husbandry: sheep, goats, cattle, horses; industrialists. Traditional religion, Russian Orthodox. Bible portions 1995.
    Karachai 156,000 speakers in Karachi-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria. Karachaevsk-Cherkessk is the capital. Cyrillic script. NT: 1994. Used by 97% of the ethnic population.Balkar and Karachay are almost identical. From 1944 to 1957 they were deported to Kazakhstan and Siberia, losing 25% to 50% of their population, and have lost much land, economic resources, and civil rights. Muslim (Sunni).
    Itelmen 60 speakers in Southern Kamchatka Peninsula, Koryak Autonomous District, Tigil Region, primarily in Kovran and Upper Khairiuzovo villages, west coast of the Kamchatka River. Speakers are shifting to Russian. Used in the home. Taught in school through fourth grade. Speakers are primarily older adults. People are neutral to mildly supportive. Taught in primary schools. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1996. From the 1950s to the 1980s the state sent all children to boarding schools. All are reported to be acculturated. Shamanist.
    Kabardian
    Kalmyk
    Dolgan 5,000 speakers in Yakut ASSR. 82% of the ethnic group speaks Dolgan. Few key domains. A few to half the children speak Dolgan. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Russian. Cyrillic script. A separate language from Yakut. Dolgan is the contact language on the Tajmyr Peninsula, and is spoken also by Evenki, Nganasan, and long-term Russian residents. Several publications in Dolgan. Traditional religion, Shamanist.
    Even 7,543 speakers in Yakutia and the Kamchatka Peninsula, widely scattered over the entire Okhotsk Arctic coast. 30% to 50% of the ethnic group speaks Even. Few key domains. Most speakers older than 30 years. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Russian, Yakut. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1880.Some literature available. Reindeer herdsmen, hunters. Christian (Russian Orthodox).
    Chuvash
    Avar 556,000 in Southern Dagestan ASSR and Terek and Sulak river areas. Also spoken in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkey (Asia). Bilingualism in Russian. North Caucasian is also called 'Caucasian.' Trade language. Cyrillic script used. Education in it for the first two years, except in cities. Newspapers. Sunni Muslim. Bible portions 1979-1996.
    Balkar 85,000 speakers in Karachi-Cherkessia and Kabardino-Balkaria. Karachaevsk-Cherkessk is the capital. The Balkar are isolated. Cyrillic script. NT: 1994. Balkar and Karachay are almost identical. From 1944 to 1957 they were deported to Kazakhstan and Siberia, losing 25% to 50% of their population, and have lost much land, economic resources, and civil rights. Muslim (Sunni).
    Bashkir 901,150 or 67% of the ethnic group in Russia, Baskir ASSR, between the Volga River and Ural Mountains, and beyond the Urals. Ufa is the capital. Over 61% of the people live in cities. Also spoken in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. Close to Tatar. Bilingualism in Tatar. The people call themselves 'Bashkort.' Cyrillic script. Oil workers, agriculturalists; traditionally cattle raisers. Sunni Muslim. Bible portions 1899-1995.
         
  Mongolia Mongolian 2,329,000 in Mongolia (1995), 89.7% of the population Ethnic Zahchin (Dzakhachin, Jakhachin 24,700 or 1.3%), Mingat (possibly 4,000; 1984), Bayad (Bayit, Bait, 39,900 or 2.1%), Oold (Oolet, Olot, 11,400 or .6%), are bilingual and in Halh Mongolian. National language. Ethnic Zahchin, Mingat, Bayad, Oold are literate in Halh. Cyrillic script. Traditionally pastoralists, now many industrialists. Originally shamanist, then Lamaist Buddhist, now largely atheist. NT 1990.
         
  Philippines Bikol 2,500,000 (1990 census). 3,519,236 includes all Bikol languages.Southern Catanduanes, Northern Sorsogon, Albay, Camarines Norte and Sur, Luzon. Naga City and Legaspi City are centers. Trade language.Bible: 1915.
    Binukid 100,000 (1987 SIL) speakers in North central Mindanao, southern Bukidnon, northeastern Cotabato, Agusan del Sur. Literacy rate in first language: 63%. Literacy rate in second language: 63%. NT: 1986. Lowland, mountain slope.
    Blaan Sarangani 90,754 speakers in South Cotabato Province, Sarangani, Davao Del Sur Province, Mindanao. Literacy rate in first language: 28%. Literacy rate in second language: 28%. Videos. NT: 1981. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Atta Pamplona 1,000 (1998 SIL) speakers in Northwestern Cagayan Province, Luzon. Speakers also use Ilocano. Literacy rate in first language: 20% to 25%. Literacy rate in second language: 20% to 25%. NT: 1996.
    Bukidnon, Western 19,034 speakers in Mindanao, southern Bukidnon Province. Literacy rate in first language: 45%. Literacy rate in second language: 45%. NT: 1978. Mountain slope. Tropical forest. Formerly swidden agriculturalists: upland rice; hunter-gatherers. Presently peasant agriculturalists: maize.
    Balangao 21,271 (2000) speakers in Eastern Bontoc Province, Luzon. Literacy rate in first language: 42.2%. Literacy rate in second language: 42.2%. NT: 1982. Agriculturalists: rice. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Caluyanun 30,000 (1994 SIL) speakers in Caluya Islands, Antique. A sample of speakers scored 69% on Hiligaynon narrative comprehension; 62% on Cuyonon. Bilingualism in Hiligaynon. Literacy rate in first language: 67%. Literacy rate in second language: 67%. NT 1990.
    Cebuano 20,043,502 speakers in Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Visayas and parts of Mindanao. Boholano is sometimes considered a separate language. Bilingualism in Tagalog. Language of wider communication. Dictionary. Grammar. Christian. Bible 1917-1981.
    Chavacano 292,630 speakers (1990 census), including 155,000 Zamboangueño, in Zamboanga, Basilan, Kabasalan, Siay, Margosatubig, Ipil, Malangas, Lapuyan, Buug, Tungawa, Alicia, Isabela, Lamitan, Maluso, Malamawi, Cotabato city, Mindanao; Cavite, Ternate, and Ermita near Manila. A creole with predominantly Spanish vocabulary and Philippine-type grammatical structure. Davawen Zamboangueño may be extinct. Nearly all Caviten speak Tagalog, but many still speak Caviteño. The major language of Zamboanga city. Ermiteño is extinct. Literacy rate in first language: 80%. Literacy rate in second language: 80%. Used in primary education. Newspapers, radio programs. NT 1981.
    Agta Casiguran 606 speakers on the East coast of Luzon, Aurora Province. Intelligibility of Paranan 83%. Bilingualism in Tagalog. Negrito. Literacy rate in first language: 2.4%. Literacy rate in second language: 2.4%. Hunter-gatherers. NT 1979. Negrito. There is pressure on them from Filipino homesteaders moving into the area. Traditional lands now being used by homesteaders for agriculture. All ages. Children are learning Tagalog before becoming teenagers.
    Agta Central Cagayan 779 speakers in Northeast Luzon. 95% of the ethnic group speaks Agta. All domains. All or nearly all the children speak Agta. Positive language attitude. They use Ilocano with all non-Agta who do not know Agta. Tagalog is the instructional language in school. Literacy rate in first language: 6%. Literacy rate in second language: 6%. NT: 1992. Negrito. Christian.
    Agta Dupaninan 1,200 (1986 SIL) speakers in Northeast Luzon, from below Divilacan Bay in the south to Palaui Island in the north. A small sample of speakers of Yaga had 70% comprehension of Ilocano. Literacy rate in first language: below 1%. Literacy rate in second language: below 1%. NT: 2001. Hunter-gatherers.
    Agta Umiray Dumaget 3,000 (1994 SIL) speakers in Quezon Province, Luzon. Some parents pass it on to children, Used mainly among adults. All domains, home, religion, commerce. Some are proud of their culture and language but many seem indifferent to them. Most speakers are also fluent in Tagalog or Ilocano. Literacy rate in first language: 5% to 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 5% to 10%. Roman script. NT: 1977. Mountain slope, coastal. Hunter-gatherers.
    Mamanwa 5,152 speakers in Agusan del Norte and Surigao provinces, Mindanao. Literacy rate in first language: 7%. Literacy rate in second language: 7%. NT: 1982.
    Masbatenyo 350,000 (2002 SIL). 50,000 monolinguals, mostly children. Ethnic population: 700,000.Masbate Province, three islands. Related to Hiligaynon and Capiznon. 79% lexical similarity with Capiznon, 76% with Hiligaynon. Language of wider communication. 250,000 second-language speakers (2002 SIL). Used in the home, market, work. All ages. Literacy rate in first language: 65%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Taught in primary and secondary schools. Roman script. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. Volcanic islands. Sea level to 550 meters. Agriculturalists; fishermen. Christian.
    Manobo Ata    
    Manobo Sarangani 35,000 (1987 SIL) speakers in Southern and eastern Davao, Mindanao. Literacy rate in first language: 44%. Literacy rate in second language: 44%. NT: 1982.
    Ga'dang 6,000 (2002 SIL) speakers. Very few monolinguals.Paracelis, Mt. Province, Luzon; Potia, Ifugao. Most speakers are bilingual. Literacy rate in first language: 60% to 80%. Literacy rate in second language: 60% to 80%. NT: 2000. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Ifugao Tuwali 30,000 speakers in Southern Ifugao Province, Luzon. Vigorous. Speakers of other languages use it in trading and if married to a speaker. All domains. Court, religion, commerce. All ages. Positive toward Tuwali use in home and market, preferring English for school and church. All speakers also use English, Ilocano, Tagalog, or Amganad Ifugao. Those over 40 use more English than others. All members of the community are multilingual by high school. Tuwali used in grade school as transition to English, Ilocano, or Tagalog. Literacy rate in first language: 83%. Literacy rate in second language: 60%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. NT: 1991. Kiangan is the place, Tuwali is the language. 25,000 can read and write it. Some traditional stories and fables have been recorded. VSO; prepositions; genitives, relatives after noun heads; articles, adjectives, numerals before noun heads; question word initial; one suffix, two infixes; passives; causatives; comparatives; V, CV, CVC. Mountain slope. Tropical forest. 500 to 900 meters. Peasant agriculturalists; rice; shopkeepers. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Ilokano 8,000,000 spakers in Northwestern Luzon, La Union and Ilocos provinces, Cagayan Valley, Babuyan, Mindoro, Mindanao. Language of wider communication. Roman script. Bible: 1909–1996. Christian.
    Hiliganyon 7,000,000 speakers in the Philippines, about 10% of the population. Iloilo and Capiz provinces, Panay, Negros Occidental, Visayas. Bilingualism in Tagalog. Language of wider communication. Christian. Bible 1912-1982.
    Ivatan 35,000 speakers in Batanes Islands. Many relocated on Mindanao near boundary of Bukidnon, Lanao del Sur, and Cotabato; some in Manila, Luzon, Palawan, other countries. Vigorous. The very young and very old use only Ivatan. Not used in schools. All domains, home, administration, religion, commerce, labor relations, letters. All ages. Positive language attitude. Only preschool children are monolingual. 90% use Tagalog as second language. Some can use English. Literacy rate in first language: 91.8%. Literacy rate in second language: 91.8%. Roman script. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1984. Literary tradition of laji (old songs) and folklore. Letters, hymnbooks. Mountain slope. Animal husbandry: cattle; fishermen. Christian.
    Kankanaey 150,000 speakers in Northern Benguet Province, southwestern Mountain Province, southeastern Ilocos Sur, northeastern La Union, Luzon. Literacy rate in first language: 75%. Literacy rate in second language: 78%. Mountain slope. Agriculturalists: rice, vegetables. Traditional religion, Christian. NT 1990.
    Kankanaey Northern 70,000 speakers in Western Mountain Province, southeastern Ilocos Sur, Luzon. Literacy rate in first language: 65% to 70%. Literacy rate in second language: 65% to 70%. Grammar. NT: 1984.
    Palawano Brooke's Point 15,000 speakers in Southeastern Palawan. Of Quezon Palawano (Central) 76% intelligibility, of Southwest Palawano 68%, of South Palawano 87% intelligibility. 82% lexical similarity with Quezon Palawano (Central), 85% with Southwest Palawano, 83% with South Palawano. Comprehension of Tagalog is low. Literacy rate in first language: 10%. Literacy rate in second language: 10%. Bible portions 1992.
    Pampango 1,897,378 speakers in Pampanga, Tarlac, and Bataan provinces, Luzon. Language of wider communication. Dominant language in Pampanga Province. Bible: 1917–1994.
    Pangasinan 1,164,586 speakers in Pangasinan Province, Luzon. Grammar. Bible: 1915–1983.
    Samarenyo 2,437,688 (1990 census), about 4.6% of the population. Northern and eastern Samar-Leyte. Several dialects. Investigation needed: intelligibility with dialects. Language of wider communication. Bible 1937-1984.
    Sambal Tina 70,000 speakers in Luzon, northern Zambales Province, 5 towns, 2 villages in Pangasinan Province, and village of Panitian, Quezon on Palawan Island. Young people start using it in work situations if they do not go on to higher education; little use among children. All domains among adults. Oral use in local commerce, occasional use in religion and political campaigning. Some letter writing. Speakers are adults. They do not use Sambal around outsiders, but they like it when a few outsiders learn Sambal. All have moderate comprehension of Filipino. Possibly 30% speak some Ilocano. Only Filipino and English taught in school. Literacy rate in first language: 98%. Literacy rate in second language: 98%. Orthography close to Filipino. Roman script. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1999. There is migration to cities for economic improvement. Coastal. Sea level. Agriculturalists: rice; fishermen. Christian, syncretism.
    Yakan 105,545 in the Philippines (1990 census). 33% monolinguals. Sulu Archipelago, Basilan Island and small surrounding islands, Sakol Island, east coast of Zamboanga peninsula, western Mindanao. They live more concentrated away from the coast. Also spoken in Malaysia (Sabah). Vigorous. All domains. Local administration, commerce, religion, oral traditional literature. Positive language attitude. Percentage of monolinguals higher among older population, especially women. Younger people and men tend to be multilingual. 60% speak Tausug, 10% Chavacano (1990 census). Educated persons can communicate in Tagalog and English to some extent as well. Pilipino (Tagalog) is the medium of instruction in elementary school, English in secondary school. Literacy rate in first language: 35%. Literacy rate in second language: 25%. Roman script. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1984. Land division in families and increasing population pushes young people to seek employment in cities or other countries. Islands, mountain slope, riverine. Little virgin forest left. Coconut palms, rubber trees. Sea level to 1,000 meters. Agriculturalists. Muslim.
Yakan Arabic 105,545 in the Philippines (1990 census). 33% monolinguals. Sulu Archipelago, Basilan Island and small surrounding islands, Sakol Island, east coast of Zamboanga peninsula, western Mindanao. They live more concentrated away from the coast. Also spoken in Malaysia (Sabah). Vigorous. All domains. Local administration, commerce, religion, oral traditional literature. Positive language attitude. Percentage of monolinguals higher among older population, especially women. Younger people and men tend to be multilingual. 60% speak Tausug, 10% Chavacano (1990 census). Educated persons can communicate in Tagalog and English to some extent as well. Pilipino (Tagalog) is the medium of instruction in elementary school, English in secondary school. Literacy rate in first language: 35%. Literacy rate in second language: 25%. Roman script. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1984. Land division in families and increasing population pushes young people to seek employment in cities or other countries. Islands, mountain slope, riverine. Little virgin forest left. Coconut palms, rubber trees. Sea level to 1,000 meters. Agriculturalists. Muslim.
    Sinama 90,027 speakers in Sulu Province. Also spoken in Malaysia (Sabah). Literacy rate in first language: 15%. Literacy rate in second language: 15%. NT: 1987. Muslim, Christian.
    Sunbanon Western 75,000 speakers in Mindanao, Zamboanga Peninsula. Siocon and Western Kolibugan have 89% lexical similarity. Literacy rate in first language: 39%. Literacy rate in second language: 39%. Christian. NT 1996.
    Tagalog 16,911,871 first language speakers (1990 census), about 23.8% of the population. Used to some degree by 39,000,000 speakers. Manila, most of Luzon, and Mindoro. Pilipino is presently the national language. Filipino is to be developed from it to replace it. National language. Grammar. Roman script. Used in the schools. Christian. Bible 1905, in press (1998).
    Tagbanwa 10,000 (2002 SIL). 5% monolinguals.Palawan, in scattered communities ranging from about 120 km south to 60 km north of Puerto Princesa, on both sides of the island. Used exclusively with other Tagbanwa in all situations. All ages. In the presence of non-Tagbanwa Filipinos, Tagbanwas are somewhat ashamed of being Tagbanwa, and speak Tagalog as they are able. Most also speak Tagalog to varying degrees. Very few would be highly bilingual. On the West coast, which is more isolated and less developed than the East coast, Tagalog comprehension and speaking ability are fairly low. Literacy rate in first language: 36%. Literacy rate in second language: 36%. Syllabary formerly used by Tagbanwa and Palawano. NT: 1992. Sea level to 300 meters. Fishermen; agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Tausug 900,000 in the Philippines (2000 SIL). 250,000 monolinguals. Jolo, Sulu Archipelago. Palawan Island, Basilan Island, Zamboanga City and environs. Also spoken in Indonesia (Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sabah). Language of wider communication. Vigorous. Mapun, Central Sama, Balangingi Sama, Pangutaran Sama, Southern Sama, and Yakan speakers speak it as second language. All domains, local administration, commerce, religion, letters. All ages. Older people feel that young people do not know the 'deep' Tausug. Positive language attitude. Literacy rate in first language: 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Roman, Arabic, Malay-Arabic scripts; Malay-Arabic script in Malaysia. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1985–1998. Agriculturalists; fishermen; traders. Muslim, Christian.
    Tausug Arabic 900,000 in the Philippines (2000 SIL). 250,000 monolinguals. Jolo, Sulu Archipelago. Palawan Island, Basilan Island, Zamboanga City and environs. Also spoken in Indonesia (Kalimantan), Malaysia (Sabah). Language of wider communication. Vigorous. Mapun, Central Sama, Balangingi Sama, Pangutaran Sama, Southern Sama, and Yakan speakers speak it as second language. All domains, local administration, commerce, religion, letters. All ages. Older people feel that young people do not know the 'deep' Tausug. Positive language attitude. Literacy rate in first language: 50%. Literacy rate in second language: 50%. Roman, Arabic, Malay-Arabic scripts; Malay-Arabic script in Malaysia. Radio programs. Dictionary. NT: 1985–1998. Agriculturalists; fishermen; traders. Muslim, Christian.
    Tboli 95,323 (2000 WCD). 10,000 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 100,000 to 120,000. South Cotabato Province, Southwestern Mindanao. All ages. They are speaking their language to each other more freely in buses, surrounding towns, etc. Tboli learn Ilongo easily. Literacy rate in first language: Perhaps 50% to 60%. Literacy rate in second language: Perhaps 50% to 60%. Literacy program in heretofore unreached coastal mountain range. They operate their own government school. Roman script. Poetry. Grammar. NT: 1979–1992. Isolating. Mountain slope. 300 to 1,600 meters. Swidden agriculturalists; hunter-gatherers. Christian, traditional religion.
    Teruray 50,000 (2002 SIL) speakers in Upi, Cotabato, Mindanao. Literacy rate in first language: 49%. Literacy rate in second language: 49%. NT: 1983.
         
         
  India Boro 600,000 speakers in Assam, South Bank; West Bengal, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Coch-Behar districts; Manipur, Chandel (Tengnoupal) District; Meghalaya, West Garo Hills District, 7 villages in the Tikrikilla block. Also spoken in Nepal. Official language. Vigorous Bodo language and culture. Most Mech in Assam speak Assamese as first language. Literacy rate in second language: 40% Assamese. Devanagari, Assamese, and Roman script. Magazines. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1981. 3 Scheduled Tribes: Mech, Boro-Kachari, Plains Kachari. Agriculturalists. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Hindi 180,000,000 in India, 363,839,000 or nearly 50% of the population including second language users in India. Population total all countries 366,000,000 first language speakers, 487,000,000 including second language users.
    Hmar 50,000 speakers in Assam, North Cachar and Cachar districts; Manipur, south, Tipaimukh, Churachandpur, 35 villages; Mizoram, Aizawl, Cachar, North Cachar districts; Tripura. Speakers also use Assamese. Literacy rate in second language: 90%. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1968–1987. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Ethnic Hmar living in Mizoram speak Mizo as first language. Christian.
    Garo: Achik 575,000 speakers in Meghalaya, Garo Hills District; West Assam, Goalpara, Kamrup, Karbi Anglong districts; Nagaland. Awe dialect, spoken by Garo of Assam, is nearly obsolete. Most use standard Garo. Literacy rate in second language: 23% (1971). General level of education is low compared to Khasi. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Films. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1924–1994. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Christian.
    Gujarati
    Chin Tiddim 100,000 speakers in Myanmar, in Falam District, Chin Hills. Also spoken in Bangladesh, India. Most young people and some older people, if educated, can read Falam (Myanmar). Roman script in India. Bible: 1991. SOV. Christian.
    Kom Rem 5,000 speakers in East and central Manipur, Churachandandpur, Tamenglong, and Senapati districts, 22 villages. Speakers of Aimol, Koireng, and Chiru also understand Kom. Fluent in Meitei (Singh). Literacy rate in second language: 42% (1981 census). Roman script. Newspapers. Dictionary. Bible: 1996. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Foothills, plains. Agriculturalists. Christian.
    Chin, Thado (Kuki) 125,100 speakers in Assam; Manipur, Chandel District; Nagaland, Kohima District; Mizoram, northeast; Tripura. Also spoken in Myanmar. Speakers also use Meitei or Nepali. Literacy rate in second language: 24% (1971). Literacy low among older people and in villages. Taught in schools in Manipur. Magazines. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1971–1994. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Some of those listed as dialects are separate languages. SOV. Agriculturalists. Christian.
    Karbi 478,000 speakers in Assam, Karbi Anglong District, Mikir and Rengma hills, Kamrup, Nowgong districts; Arunachal Pradesh, Papumpare District, Balijan circle; Meghalaya, Jaintia, and East Khasi Hills districts; Nagaland, foothills around Dimapur. Some other groups speak Karbi as first language, including some Dimasa. Speakers of all ages use Assamese as second language. Literacy rate in second language: 17% (1971). Roman script. Grammar. Bible: 1952. A Scheduled Tribe in India. 'Mikir' is derogatory. Agriculturalists: wet rice. Hindu, traditional religion, Christian.
    Kunrukh
    Assamese 15,334,000 speakers in Assam; West Bengal; Meghalaya; Arunachal Pradesh. Also spoken in Bangladesh, Bhutan. State language of Assam. Bengali script. Bible: 1833.
    Mizo 529,000 speakers in Mizoram; Assam; Manipur, Churachandpur District; Nagaland; Tripura, Jampui Hill range. Also spoken in Bangladesh, Myanmar. Literacy rate in second language: 60% (1971). Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Magazines. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1959–1995. Mizo is a Scheduled Tribe in India with subgroups listed as dialects. SOV. Christian.
    Malayalam
    Khasi 865,000 speakers in Assam, Cachar, Nowgong, North Cachar Hills, Lakhimpur, Kamrup districts; Meghalaya, East and West Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills districts; Manipur; West Bengal; Tripura. Also spoken in Bangladesh. Official regional language of Meghalaya. Used in government, courts, mass media in Meghalaya. Literacy rate in second language: 29% (1971). Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1891. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Lyngngam is a former Garo clan, but do not mix with the Garo, and consider themselves to be Khasi (R. Breton 1997). SVO. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Naga: Angami
    Naga: Ao 141,000 speakers in Northeastern Nagaland, central Mokokchung District; Assam. Speakers also use Assamese, English, or Hindi. Literacy rate in second language: 12% (1971). Roman script. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1964. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Christian.
    Naga: Chang 31,000 speakers in Assam; east central Nagaland, Tuensang District, 36 villages. Speakers also use Naga Pidgin, Ao, Assamese, English, or Hindi. Roman script. Dictionary. NT: 1982. Agriculturalists. Christian, traditional religion.
    Naga: Lotha (Kyong) 80,000 speakers in Nagaland, west central, Workha District. Speakers also use Naga Pidgin. Literacy rate is high. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Grammar. Bible: 1967–2000. A Scheduled Tribe in India. 1,200 meters. Christian.
    Naga: Liangmei 20,000 speakers in Nagaland, Kohima District, Jhaluke, Paren, Medzephima blocks, upper Barak Valley.
    Naga: Mao 81,000 speakers in Northwest Manipur, Senapati District; Nagaland. Speakers also use Meitei.Literacy rate in second language: 25% Meitei, English. Literacy rate is high. Roman script. Dictionary. Bible: 2001. Mao is a Scheduled Tribe in India. Mountain slope. Hunter-gatherers; agriculturalists. Christian.
    Naga: Rengma
    Naga: Rongmei 59,000 speakers in Northwest Manipur; Nagaland; Assam, Cachar District. Literacy rate in first language: High. Magazines. Radio programs. Bible: 1989. Songbu is the principal division of Rongmei. Merged with Zeme and Liangmai Naga to form the Zeliang community. The government calls Inpui and Rongmei 'Kabui'. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Naga: Sangtam
    Naga: Sumi
    Naga Tangkhul 110,000 speakers in Manipur, Ukhrul District; Nagaland; Tripura. Literacy rate in first language: High among young people, lower among older people. Literacy rate in second language: 70% Meitei, English. Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1976. A Scheduled Tribe in India. The most educated group of Manipur. Mountain slope, plains. Agriculturalists. Christian.
    Telugu
    Santali
    Chin, Mara 22,000 in India, Mizoram, Chhimtuipui District, 60 villages. 20,000 in Myanmar, in Lushai Hills. Speakers also use Mizo or English. Taught in primary schools since 1978. Roman script. Bible: 1956–2002. A Scheduled Tribe in India. A subgroup of Mizo (Lushai). SOV. Christian.
    Marathi 68,030,000 in India, in Maharashtra and adjacent states. State language of Maharashtra. Spoken by the Mangelas as first language. The Bene Israel are a Marathi-speaking Jewish group of Bombay. 3,00,000 second-language speakers. Literacy rate in first language: 34%. Literacy rate in second language: 34%. Devanagari script. Bible: 1821–2002. The Habshi are descended from East African slaves brought to western India, and are Muslim. 'Are' is a synonym for a Marathi caste name. 'Are' also used to refer to Marathi-speaking communities in south India. SOV. Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Christian, Jain, Jewish (Bene Israel).
    Lushai 529,000 speakers in Mizoram; Assam; Manipur, Churachandpur District; Nagaland; Tripura, Jampui Hill range. Also spoken in Bangladesh, Myanmar. Literacy rate in second language: 60% (1971). Taught in primary schools. Roman script. Magazines. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1959–1995. Mizo is a Scheduled Tribe in India with subgroups listed as dialects. SOV. Christian.
    Mundari 2,069,000 in India (1997 IMA), including 1,022,000 Mundari, 519,000 Munda, 528,000 Bhumij.Assam; Bihar, mainly in southern and western parts of Ranchi District; Himachal Pradesh; Madhya Pradesh; Orissa; Tripura; West Bengal; Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Also spoken in Bangladesh, Nepal. Related to Ho and Santali, but a separate language. 75% intelligibility with Ho. 70% to 84% lexical similarity with Bhumij. There is Bhumij literature and a Bhumij Society. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Investigation needed: intelligibility with Ho, Mundari of Ranchi, Mundari of Mayurbhanj, Bhumij. Literacy rate in first language: 10% to 30%. Literacy rate in second language: 50% to 75%. Plateau. Agriculturalists. 2,000 feet. Traditional religion, Hindu. Bible 1910-1932.
    Manipuri
    Sinhalese
    Sora 288,000 speakers in South Orissa, mainly in the Ganjam District, also in the Koraput and Phulbani districts; Andhra Pradesh, Srikakulam District; Madhya Pradesh; Bihar; Tamil Nadu; West Bengal; the Plains Division of Assam. A Scheduled Tribe in India. Investigation needed: intelligibility with dialects. Hindu (mainly), Christian. Bible 1992.
    Tamil 61,527,000 speakers in India, in Tamil Nadu and neighboring states. 3,000,000 in Sri Lanka. State language of Tamil Nadu. 8,000,000 second-language speakers. Tamil script. Films. Bible: 1727–2002. SOV. Hindu, Muslim.
    Punjabi
    Kannada
    Oriya
    Paite
         
  Nepal Nepali
         
  Pakistan Urdu
         
  Bangladesh Bengali 100,000,000 speakers in Bangladesh, 70,561,000 in India Official language. Taught in primary schools. Bengali script. Bible: 1809–2000. Muslim.
         
  Indonesia Batak Karo 600,000 speakers in Central and northern, west and northwest of Lake Toba. Grammar. Bible: 1987–1995. Christian, traditional religion.
    Javanese 75,200,000 speakers in Indonesia, Central Java, eastern third of west Java, southwestern half of east Java. High Javanese (Jawa Halus) is the language of religion, but the number of people that can control that form is diminishing. The Javanese in Suriname and in New Caledonia have changed sufficiently to be only partially intelligible with difficulty. Javanese in New Caledonia are reported to not be able to use High Javanese (Koentjaraninggrat). Traditional Javanese script. Bible: 1854–1994. SVO. Muslim, Christian.
    Indonesian 22,803,774 in Indonesia (2000 WCD). Population total all countries: 23,143,354.
    Aceh 3,000,000 speakers in Northern, Aceh Province, northern and southern coasts around the tip of Sumatra Language of wider communication. Speakers also use Indonesian. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 1997. SVO. Coastal. Muslim, Christian.
    Kenya 6,000 speakers in Northeast, Apo Kayan highlands where Kayan River begins, Iwan River, and around Longbia. NT: 1978. Christian.
    Madura 13,694,000 speakers in Indonesia, in Island of Madura, Sapudi Islands, northern coastal area of eastern Java All domains. East Madurese, especially Sumenep, is considered 'high', or 'standard Madurese'. Sumenep is isolated culturally and geographically. Bangkalon, spoken in Surabaya, is important economically because that is the city with the greatest outside contact and commerce. It is highly urbanized and affected by Bahasa Indonesia. About 60% of men and 40% of women speak 'passable' Indonesian to outsiders. Literacy rate in second language: 40%. Literacy higher among Bangkalon speakers. Grammar. Bible: 1994.Mainly rural. Muslim, Christian.
    Lundayeh 25,000 speakers in Indonesia, Interior about 4 degrees north from Brunei Bay to headwaters of Padas River, to headwaters of Baram, and into Kalimantan, Indonesian mountains where tributaries of Sesayap River arise. Also spoken in Brunei, Malaysia (Sarawak). Radio programs. Bible: 1982. Not Murutic, although sometimes called Southern Murut. Christian (Lunbawang, Lundayeh), traditional religion.
    Sangir 200,000 speakers in North Sulawesi, Great Sangir Island, and north Maluku. Also spoken in Philippines. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1883–1994. Christian, Muslim.
    Sunda 27,000,000 speakers or 13.6% of the population, in the Western third of Java Island. 60% use Indonesian and 5% use Dutch as second language. Muslim, Christian, traditional religion. Bible 1891-1991.
    Yali 15,000 speakers in Central highlands area northwest of Nalca, east of Grand Valley Dani. NT: 1988. Christian, traditional religion.
    Talaud 60,000 speakers in North Sulawesi, Talaud Islands northeast of the Sangihe Islands. Christian. NT 1993.
    Toba 2,000,000 speakers in Samosir Island and east, south, and west of Toba Lake in north Sumatra Traditional Batak script. Bible: 1894–1989. Christian.
    Tobelo 27,720 speakers in North Maluku, north Halmahera Island, Tobelo, Kao, and Jailolo districts, and Maba and Wasile districts, Halmahera Tengah; northern half of Morotai, all coastal areas of Kao Bay and inland, Patani, Weda, Gane, Bacan, Obi, Ambon, Raja Ampat islands of Papua, Sorong, Papua. Positive language attitude. Speakers also use Indonesian. Literacy rate in first language: 1% to 5%. Literacy rate in second language: 25% to 50%. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. Tobelo taught in middle school in Tobelo town. Traditional religion, Christian.
    Toraja 500,000 speakers in South Sulawesi, Tana Toraja District with large enclaves in Luwu District. Several thousand also in Ujung Pandang city. Also on west coast of southeast Sulawesi in Kolaka and Wundulako districts. Rantepao is prestige dialect. River valleys. Agriculturalists: wet rice, coffee. Christian over, some traditional religion, Muslim. Bible 1960-1995.
    Saluan 74,000 speakers in East central Sulawesi; Luwuk, Balantak, Lamala, Buko, Totikum, Kintom, Batui, Pagimana, Bunta subdistricts; 136 villages. Loinang dialect is in the mountains. The name 'Saluan' is preferred over 'Loinang' by the speakers. Muslim, traditional religion, Christian.
    Lani  
    Simalungun 1,200,000 speakers in Northern, northeast of Lake Toba. Bible: 1976.
         
  Malaysia Biatah 21,219 speakers in Malaysia, in Sarawak, 1st Division, Kuching District, 10 villages. 8,484 in Indonesia, in Northwest Kalimantan, on Sarawak border. Mainly in Sarawak. Literacy rate in second language: 45%. Radio programs. NT: 1963–2003. 'Bidayuh' is a cover term for all Sarawak Land Dayak groups, plus Selako. 'Siburan' is the speakers' name for themselves. Agriculturalists: sago, wet rice, vegetables, fruit, rubber, pepper; animal husbandry: pigs, poultry; government employees.
    Penan 9,000 speakers in Sarawak, Upper Baram and Balui rivers around Mt. Dulit, 3 villages, 4th to 7th divisions, and Nibong branch of the Lobong River, a tributary of the Tinjar River. 50 speakers in Brunei. Not closely related to other languages. Traditionalists are nomadic and semi-nomadic. Tropical forest. Subsistence agriculturalists, hunter-gatherers. NT 1974, out of print.
    Iban 400,000 speakers in Sarawak, From Sadong River north to Bintulu, Sibu, one village in Tawau District of Sabah. Also spoken in Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan). Dialect of Second Division is the norm for literature. Largest language group in Sarawak. Grammar. SVO. Iban taught in some primary schools. Radio programs. Agriculturalists: dry and wet rice, fruit, rubber; fishermen. Bible 1988.
    Murut Tagal 46,054 speakers in Malaysia, Pensiangan, Keningau, Tenom, Sipitang districts over the whole southwestern portion of Sabah, south into Kalimantan, Indonesia. Also spoken in Indonesia (Kalimantan). Literacy rate in second language: 20%. NT: 1984–1991.
    Murut Timugon 12,098 speakers in Malaysia (Sabah), Tenom District along the Padas River from Melalap to Batu, and Beaufort District along the Bukau and lower Padas rivers. NT: 1998.
    Malay